Юваль Ной Харари - Sapiens
Послесловие. Животные, ставшие богами.
70 тысяч лет назад Homo sapiens все еще был незначительным животным, жившим своей жизнью где-то на задворках Африки. В последующие тысячелетия он преобразился во владыку планеты, в ужас экосистемы. Сегодня он стоит на грани превращения в бога, обретения не только вечной молодости, но и божественной способности творить и разрушать. К сожалению, господство сапиенсов пока произвело мало того, чем мы могли бы гордиться. Мы подчинили себе окружающую среду, увеличили производство пищи, построили города и империи, связали все уголки Земли торговой сетью. Но разве страдания на планете стало меньше? Мощные революции, заметно расширявшие возможности человечества, далеко не всегда улучшали условия жизни отдельных людей и, как правило, причиняли ужасные несчастья другим живым существам. За последние десятилетия нам наконец удалось существенно улучшить положение человека, уменьшив масштабы голода, болезней и войн. Но положение других животных ухудшается еще быстрее, чем прежде, да и участь большей части человечества улучшилась так недавно и настолько эфемерно, что радоваться пока еще рано. Более того, научившись стольким замечательным вещам, мы так и не разобрались в своих целях, и мы все еще не удовлетворены. Мы строили каноэ, потом галеоны, потом пароходы, а теперь уже и космические корабли — но куда мы стремимся? Мы обрели невиданное прежде могущество, но понятия не имеем, как им распорядиться. Хуже того, люди становятся все безответственнее. Боги-самозванцы, мы считаемся только с законами физики и ни перед кем не отвечаем за свои поступки. Мы превратили в кошмар жизнь других животных, мы разрушаем экосистему планеты, думая лишь о своем комфорте и удовольствии — и ни в чем не находим счастья. Что может быть опаснее, чем разочарованные, безответственные боги, так и не осознавшие, чего они хотят?
Благодарности: Люди, которых я хотел бы поблагодарить за помощь и советы: Сараи Ахарони, Дорит Ахаронов, Амос Авизар, Цафрир Барзилаи, Ной Бенинга, Сюзанна Дин, Каспиан Деннис, Тирза Эйзенберг, Амир Финк, Сара Холлоуэй, Бенджамин 3. Кедар, Йосси Мори, Эйал Миллер, Давид Милнер, Джон Перселл, Саймон Родес, Шмуэль Рознер, Рами Ротхольц, Михаль Шавит, Идан Шерер, Элли Стил, Офер Стейниц, Михаэль Шенкар, Хаим Вацман, Гай Заславски и все преподаватели и студенты программы Всемирной истории в Еврейском университете Иерусалима. Особая благодарность Джареду Даймонду, который учил меня смотреть шире, Диего Холстейну, который вдохновил меня написать эту книгу, а также Ицику Яхаву и Деборе Харрис, которые помогли, чтобы ее прочел весь мир.
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See also: Bruce Winterhalder and Eric Alder Smith, Analyzing Adaptive Strategies: Human Behavioral Ecology at Twenty Five’, Evolutionary Anthropology 9:2 (2000), 51-72. 26 Alain Bideau, Bertrand Desjardins and Hector Perez-Brignoli (eds.), Infant and Child Mortality in tde Past (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997); Edward Anthony Wrigley et al., English Population History from Family Reconstitution, 1580-1837 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 295-296, 303. 27 Manfred Heun et al., ‘Site of Einkorn Wheat Domestication Identified by DNA Fingerprints’, Science 278:5341 (1997), 1312-1314. 28 Charles Patterson, Eternal Treblinka: Our Treatment of Animals and the Holocaust (New York: Lantern Books, 2002), 9-10; Peter J. Ucko and G.W. Dimbleby (ed.), The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals (London: Duckworth, 1969), 259. 29 Avi Pinkas (ed.), Farmyard Animals in Israel — Researchy Humanism and Activity (Rishon Le-Ziyyon: The Association for Farmyard Animals, 2009 [Hebrew]), 169-199; “Milk Production — the Cow” [Hebrew], The Dairy Council, accessed March 22, 2012. 30 Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard, The Nuer: A Description of the Modes of Livelihood and Political Institutions of a Nilotic People (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969); E.C. Amoroso and P.A. Jewell, ‘The Exploitation of the Milk-Ejection Reflex by Primitive People’, in Man and Cattle: Proceedings of the Symposium on Domestication at the Royal Anthropological Institute, Примечания 507 24-26 May 1960, ed. A.E. Mourant and F.E. Zeuner (London: The Royal Anthropological Institute, 1963), 129-134. 31 Johannes Nicolaisen, Ecology and Culture of the Pastoral Tuareg (Copenhagen: National Museum, 1963), 63. 32 Angus Maddison, The World Economy, vol. 2 (Paris: Development Centre of the Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development, 2006), 636; “Historical Estimates of World Population”, U.S. Census Bureau, accessed December 10, 2010, http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/worldhis. html. 33 Robert B. Mark, The Origins of the Modern World: A Global and Ecological Narrative (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2002), 24. 34 Raymond Westbrook, ‘Old Babylonian Period', in A History of Ancient Near Eastern Lawy vol. I, ed. Raymond Westbrook (Leiden: Brill, 2003), 361-430; Martha T. Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor, 2nd ed. (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997), 71-142; M. E. J. Richardson, Hammurabis Laws: Text, Translation and Glossary (London: T and T Clark International, 2000). 35 Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia, 76. 36 Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia, 121. 37 Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia, 122-123. Ъ1 Roth, Law Collections, 133-134. 39 Constance Brittaine Bouchard, Strong of Body, Brave and Noble: Chivalry and Society in Medieval France (New York: Cornell University Press, 1998), 99; Mary Martin McLaughlin, ‘Survivors and Surrogates: Children and Parents from the Ninth to Thirteenth Centuries', in Medieval Families: Perspectives on Marriage, Household and Children, ed. Carol Neel (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004), 81 n. 81; Lise E. Hull, Britain s Medieval Castles (Westport: Praeger, 2006), 144. 40 Andrew Robinson, The Story of Writing (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1995), 63; Hans J. Nissen, Peter Damerow and Robert K. Englung, Archaic Bookkeeping: Writing and Techniques of Economic Administration in the Ancient Near East (Chicago, London: The University of Chicago Press, 1993), 36. 41 Marcia and Robert Ascher, Mathematics of the Incas- Code of the Quipu (New York: Dover Publications, 1981). 42 Gary Urton. Signs of the Inka Khipu (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2003); Galen Brokaw. A History of the Khipu (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010). 43 Stephen D. Houston (ed.), The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 222. 44 Sheldon Pollock, ‘Axialism and Empire’, in Axial Civilizations and World History, ed. Johann P. Arnason, S. N. Eisenstadt and Bjorn Wittrock (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 397-451 45 Harold M. Tanner, China: A History (Indianapolis: Hackett, Pub. Co., 2009), 34. 46 Ramesh Chandra, Identity and Genesis of Caste System in India (Delhi: Kalpaz Publications, 2005); Michael Bamshad et al., ‘Genetic Evidence on the Origins of Indian Caste Population, Genome Research 11 (2001): 904- 1004; Susan Bayly, Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999). 47 Houston, First Writing, 196. 48 The Secretary-General, United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on the In-depth Study on All Forms of Violence Against Women, delivered to the General Assembly, U.N. Doc. А/16/122/Add. 1 (July 6,2006), 89. 49 Sue Blundell, Women in Ancient Greece (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), 113-129, 132-133. 50 Francisco Lopez de Gomara, Historia de la Conquista de Mexico, vol. 1, ed. D. Joaquin Ramirez Cabanes (Mexico City: Editorial Pedro Robredo, 1943), 106. ' 51 Andrew M. Watson, ‘Back to Gold — and Silver, Economic History Review 20:1 (1967), 11-12; Jasim Alubudi, Repertorio Bibliografico del Islam (Madrid: Vision Libros, 2003), 194. 52 Watson, ‘Back to Gold — and Silver, 17-18. 53 David Graeber, Debt: The First 5,000 Years (Brooklyn, N.Y.: Melville House, 2011). 54 Glyn Davies, A History of Money: from Ancient Times to the Present Day (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1994), 15. 55 Szymon Laks, Music of Another World, trans. Chester A. Kisiel (Evanston, 111.: Northwestern University Press, 1989), 88-89. «Рынок» Освенцима был ограничен определенными категориями заключенных, и условия резко менялись в зависимости от времени. 56 Niall Ferguson, The Ascent of Money (New York: The Penguin Press, 2008), 4. 57 Сведения о ячменных деньгах я почерпнул из неопубликованной диссертации: Refael Benvenisti, Economic Institutions of Ancient Assyrian Trade in the Twentieth to Eighteenth Centuries BC (Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, 2011). См. также Norman Yoffee, ‘The Economy of Ancient Western Asia’, in Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, vol. 1, ed. J.M. Sasson (New York: C. Scribners Sons, 1995), Примечания 509 1387-1399; R. К. Englund, ‘Proto-Cuneiform Account-Books and Journals’, in Creating Economic Order: Record-keepingy Standardization, and the Development of Accounting in the Ancient Near East, ed. Michael Hudson and Cornelia Wunsch (Bethesda, MD: CDL Press, 2004), 21-46; Marvin A. Powell, ‘A Contribution to the History of Money in Mesopotamia prior to the Invention of Coinage, in Festschrift Lubor MatouS, ed. B. Hruska and G. Komoroczy (Budapest: Eotvos Lorand Tudomanyegyetem, 1978), 211— 243; Marvin A. Powell, ‘Money in Mesopotamia, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 39:3 (1996), 224-242; John F. Robertson, ‘The Social and Economic Organization of Ancient Mesopotamian Temples’, in Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, vol. 1, ed. Sasson, 443-500; M. Silver, ‘Modern Ancients’, in Commerce and Monetary Systems in the Ancient World: Means of Transmission and Cultural Interaction, ed. R. Rollinger and U. Christoph (Stuttgart: Steiner, 2004), 65-87; Daniel C. Snell, ‘Methods of Exchange and Coinage in Ancient Western Asia, in Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, vol. 1, ed. Sasson, 1487-1497. 58 Nahum Megged, The Aztecs (Tel Aviv: Dvir, 1999 [Hebrew]), 103. 59 Тацит. Агрикола, гл. XXX. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1958), pp. 220-221. 60 A. Fienup-Riordan, The Nelson Island Eskimo: Social Structure and Ritual Distribution (Anchorage: Alaska Pacific University Press, 1983), p. 10. 61 Yuri Pines, ‘Nation States, Globalization and a United Empire — the Chinese Experience (third to fifth centuries BC)’, Historia 15 (1995), 54 [Hebrew]. 62 Alexander Yakobson, ‘Us and Them: Empire, Memory and Identity in Claudius’ Speech on Bringing Gauls into the Roman Senate’, in On Memory: An Interdisciplinary Approach, ed. Doron Mendels (Oxford: Peter Land, 2007), 23-24. 63 W.H.C. Frend, Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church (Cambridgejames Clarke and Co., 2008), 536-537. 64 Robert Jean Knecht, The Rise and Fall of Renaissance France, 1483- 1610 (London: Fontana Press, 1996), 424. 65 Marie Harm and Hermann Wiehle, Lebenskunde fuer Mittelschulen — Fuenfter Teil. Klasse 5 fuer Jungen (Halle: Hermann Schroedel Verlag, 1942), 152-157. 66 Susan Blackmore, The Meme Machine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999). 67 David Christian, Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 344-345; Angus Maddison, The World Economy, vol. 2 (Paris: Development Centre of the Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development, 2001), 636; ‘Historical Estimates of World Population, U.S. Census Bureau, accessed December 10, 2010, http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/worldhis.html. 68 Maddison, The World Economy, vol. 1, 261. 69 "Gross Domestic Product 2009", The World Bank, Data and Statistics, accessed December 10,2010, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/ DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GDP.pdf. 70 Christian, Maps of Time, 141. 71 Самое крупное современное грузовое судно перевозит около 100 тысяч тонн. В 1470 году совокупный тоннаж мирового торгового флота составлял 730 тысяч тонн (Maddison, The World Economy, vol. 1,97). 72 Крупнейший мировой банк — Королевский банк Шотландии — на 2007 год хранил депозиты общей стоимостью 1,3 триллиона долларов. Это впятеро больше совокупного мирового производства за 1500 год. См. ‘Annual Report and Accounts 2008*, The Royal Bank of Scotland, 35, accessed December 10,2010, http://files.shareholder. com/downloads/RBS/626570033x0x278481/eb7a003a-5c9b-41ef-bad3- 81fb98a6c823/RBS_GRA_2008_09_03_09.pdf. 73 Ferguson, Ascent of Money, 185-198. 74 Jennie B. Dormah et al., ‘The age-1 and daf-2 Genes Function in a Common Pathway to Control the Lifespan of Caenorhabditis elegans Genetics 141:4 (1995), 1399-1406; Koen Houthoofd et al., ‘Life Extension via Dietary Restriction is Independent of the Ins/IGF-1 Signaling Pathway in Caenorhabditis elegans Experimental Gerontology 38:9 (2003), 947-954. 75 Maddison, The World Economy, vol. 1,31; Wrigley, English Population History, 295; Christian, Maps of Time, 450, 452; ‘World Health Statistic Report 2009’, 35-45, World Health Organization, accessed December 10, 2010 http://www.who.int/whosis/whostat/EN_WHS09_Full.pdf. 76 Wrigley, English Population History, 296. 77 Там же. 78 Michael Prestwich, Edward I (Berkley: University of California Press, 1988), 125-126. 79 Stephen R. Bown, Scurvy: How a Surgeon, a Mariner, and a Gentleman Solved the Greatest Medical Mystery of the Age of Sail (New York: Thomas Dunne Books, St. Matins Press, 2004); Kenneth John Carpenter, The History of Scurvy and Vitamin C (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). 80 James Cook, The Explorations of Captain James Cook in the Pacific, as Told by Selections of his Own Journals 1768-1779, ed. Archibald Grenfell Price (New York: Dover Publications, 1971), 16-17; Gananath Obeyesekere, The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in Примечания 511 the Pacific (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), 5; J.C. Beaglehole, ed., The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968), 588. 81 Mark, Origins of the Modern World, 81. 82 Christian, Maps of Time, 436. 83 John Darwin, After Tamerlane: The Global History of Empire since 1405 (London: Allen Lane, 2007), 239. 84 Soli Shahvar, ‘Railroads i. The First Railroad Built and Operated in Persia^ in the Online Edition of Encyclopaedia Iranica, last modified April 7, 2008, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/railroads-i; Charles Issawi, ‘The Iranian Economy 1925-1975: Fifty Years of Economic Development’, in Iran under the PahlaviSy ed. George Lenczowski (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1978), 156. 85 Mark, The Origins of the Modern World, 46. 86 Kirkpatrik Sale, Christopher Columbus and the Conquest of Paradise (London: Tauris Parke Paperbacks, 2006), 7-13. 87 Edward M. Spiers, The Army and Society: 1815-1914 (London: Longman, 1980), 121; Robin Moore, ‘Imperial India, 1858-1914’, in The Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century; vol. 3, ed. Andrew Porter (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 442. 88 Vinita Damodaran, ‘Famine in Bengal: A Comparison of the 1770 Famrtne in Bengal and the 1897 Famine in Chotanagpur’, The Medieval History Journal 10: 1-2 (2007), 151. 89 Maddison, World Economy, vol. 1, 261, 264; ‘Gross National Income Per Capita 2009, Atlas Method and PPP’, The World Bank, accessed December 10,2010, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/ Resources/GNIPC.pdf. 90 Этот пример с пекарней не слишком точен по расчетам. Поскольку банк вправе одалживать $10 на каждый имеющийся у него $1, банки могут выдавать предпринимателям по $909 тысяч из миллиона, резервируя $91 тысячу. Но, чтобы облегчить жизнь читателям, я предпочел круглые числа. Тем более банки не так уж и строго придерживаются этих правил. 91 Carl Trocki, Opium, Empire and the Global Political Economy (New York: Routledge, 1999), 91. 92 Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja, The Congo from Leopold to Kabila: A Peoples History (London: Zed Books, 2002), 22. 93 Mark, Origins of the Modern World, 109. 94 Nathan S. Lewis and Daniel G. 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